Research Design | Risks to Relapses in Alcoholism

Research Design | Risks to Relapses in Alcoholism CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION â€Å"There is this to be said in favor of drinking that it takes the drunk and first out of society then Out of the world.† Ralph Waldo Emerson Alcohol is a central nervous system stimulant at low doses, and depressant at higher doses. Alcohol beverages come in range of different strengths. Alcohol can include beer, wine, spirits (e.g. vodka, gin, whiskey, brandy, rum etc.).In India spirits, i.e. government licensed country, Indian made foreign liquors like rum, whiskey, vodka, gin and illicit distilled spirits constitute more than 95% alcohol consumption. (Jerald .K and Allan .T, 2006) Alcohol use disorders are among the most prevalent psychiatric disorder. Data from several epidemiological studies suggest that lifetime prevalence of alcohol use disorder in US is around 8 %.with as many as 25% suffering severe psychiatric disturbances. The most prevalent psychiatric symptoms are  anxiety  and  depression disorders. (Hasin et al., 2007) According to current concepts alcoholism is considered a disease and alcohol a â€Å"disease agent† which causes acute and chronic intoxication, cirrhosis of the liver, toxic psychosis, gastritis, pancreatitis, cardiomyopathy and peripheral neuropathy. Alcohol is an important etiological factor in suicide, automobile and other accidents and injuries and deaths due to violence. The health problem for which alcohol is responsible is only part of total social damage which includes family disorganization, crime and loss of productivity. (Morgan, M. Y. Ritson, E. B, 2009) The pattern of drinking in India has changed from occasional and ritualistic use to social use. These developments have raised concerns about the health and the social consequences of excessive drinking. Nearly 30% of Indian men and 5% of Indian women are regular users of alcohol. (Balakrishnan. D and Subirkumar Das, 2006) Canvin Rebecca, (2012) reported that social factors such as affordability and availability of alcohol, peer pressure and buying of rounds in groups may have a role in causing alcohol dependence. National institute of alcohol abuse and alcoholism (NIAAA, 2000) reported that Tolerance, impaired control, withdrawal and compulsive use are the elements of alcohol dependence and also they reported that 40% of genetic factors and 60% of environmental factors plays a role in consuming alcohol. A serious problem with the treatment of alcohol dependence individuals is very low rate of compliance abstinence about 20%.( Noda et.al 2001) and treatment success rates are 30-60% depending on outcome measures like abstinence, heavy drinking and social functioning. Alcohol detoxification can be defined as a period of medical treatment, usually including counselling, during which a person is helped to overcome physical and psychological dependence on alcohol (Chang and Kosten 1997). The immediate objectives of alcohol detoxification are to help the patient to achieve a substance free state, relieve the immediate symptoms of withdrawal, and treat any co- morbid medical or psychiatric conditions. Alcohol detoxification can be completed safely and effectively in both inpatient and outpatient treatment settings. The process of detoxification in either setting initially involves the assessment and treatment of acute withdrawal symptoms, which may range from mild (e.g., tremor and insomnia) to severe (e.g., autonomic hyperactivity, seizures, and delirium).Medications are provided to help the patient to reduce the withdrawal symptoms. Benzodiazepines (e.g., diazepam and chlordiazepoxide) are the most commonly used drugs for this purpose, and their efficacy is well established. Benzodiazepines not only reduce alcohol withdrawal symptoms but also prevent an alcohol withdrawal seizure, which is estimated in 1 to 4% of withdrawal patients (Schuckit, 1997). Disulfiram (Antabuse) is used as an adjunct to enhance the probability of long-term sobriety. Although patient compliance is problematic, disulfiram therapy has successfully decreased frequency of drinking in alcoholics who could not remain abstinent. A study of supervised disulfiram administration reported significant periods of sobriety of up to 12 months in 60% of patients treated. (Hester., R.K and Miller, W.R., 1989) Additional components of alcohol detoxification may include education and counselling to help the patient prepare for long-term treatment, attendance at Alcoholics Anonymous meetings, recreational and social activities, and medical or surgical consultations. (Boyd, M.A, 2005). For patients with mild-to-moderate alcohol withdrawal syndrome, characterized by symptoms such as hand tremor, perspiration, heart palpitation, restlessness, loss of appetite, nausea/ vomiting, outpatient detoxification is as safe and effective as inpatient detoxification and is much less expensive and less time consuming. Among the drawbacks associated with outpatient detoxification is the increased risk of relapse resulting from the patient’s easy access to alcoholic beverages. In one of his study of 164 patients randomly assigned to inpatient or outpatient detoxification, significantly more inpatients than outpatients completed detoxification. (Hayashida et al. 1989) Miller et al. (1996) conducted a time expensive prospective study on post discharge functioning of 180 alcoholic patients. They concluded that relapse is a multidimensional construct that may be better understood if assessed in its multiple dimensions. Relapse promoting factors include anxiety, craving negative mood, childhood sexual abuse and psychological distress. (Gordon et al., 2006). Relapse inhibiting factors are self efficacy, social suppression, coping (Brown et al., 1995), spirituality, peer support, group attendance, continuing care and progressive involvement (Miller et al., 1999) The warning signs of relapse are Denial, Avoidance, Crisis, Confusion, Depression, Loss of Control regarding Behavior, Struggling with Personal Schedule and Self-Pity.(Ballard,K.A.,Kennedy,W.Z and O’Brien 2008). An analysis of 48 episodes of relapse revealed that most relapses were associated with three high-risk situations: (1) frustration and anger, (2) social pressure, and (3) interpersonal temptation. (Cooney. 1987) Desai et al, (1993) conducted a treatment outcome study of alcoholism and reported that among those who relapsed, the most common factor for drinking was negative emotional states.Among treated individuals, more severe alcohol-related problems and depressive symptoms, lack of self-efficacy and poor coping skills have been associated with short-term relapse. Terence T. Gorski Merlene Miller, (1982) Relapse does not begin with the first drink. Relapse begins when a person reactivates patterns of denial, isolation, elevated stress, and impaired judgment. Polich J.M, (1981) Relapse is so common in alcohol dependence patients and that it is estimated more than 90% of those trying to remain abstinent have at least one relapse before they achieve lasting sobriety.Foster et al (2000) report a study of 64 alcohol-dependent patients admitted for either 7 or 28 days of alcohol detoxification treatment. About 60% relapsed over the 3-month follow-up period. Marlatt G.A and Gardon J.R (1980) Another way to reduce drug relapse is through relapse prevention strategies. Relapse prevention attempts to group the factors that contribute to relapse into two broad categories: 1. Immediate determinants 2. Covert antecedents. Immediate determinants are the environmental and emotional situations that are associated with relapse, including high-risk situations that threaten an individual’s sense of control,andexpectancies. Covert antecedents, which are less obvious factors influencing relapse, include lifestyle factors such as stress level and balance, urges and  cravings. The relapse prevention model teaches addicts to anticipate relapse by recognizing and coping with various immediate determinants and covert antecedents. NEED FOR THE STUDY APA (2000), reported that Alcohol dependence, or alcoholism, is often a progressive chronic disorder and recognized as a disease. It is a common disorder posing a heavy burden on patients, their families, and society. It has a high prevalence rate compared with many other diseases and highlights the public health significance. At international level, GISAH (2005). The Global Information System on Alcohol and Health reported that the harmful use of alcohol results in the death of 2.5 million people annually. There are 60 different types of diseases where alcohol has a significant causal role. It also causes harm to the well-being and health of people living around the drinker. In 2005, the worldwide total consumption was equal to 6.13 liters of pure alcohol per person at 15 years and older. Unrecorded consumption accounts for nearly 30% of the worldwide total adult consumption. (Pratima Murthy, 2010) Alcohol dependence is recognised as mental health disorders by the World Health Organization. It ranked alcohol as the third most important risk factor for the increase in the number of disability-adjusted life years in Portugal, as well as in Europe, preceded by tobacco smoking (second risk factor) and hypertension (first risk factor) .WHO ,(2005) Alcohol related hospital admissions increased by 85% between 2002/03 and 2008/09, accounting for 945,000 admissions with a primary or secondary diagnosis wholly or partly related to alcohol in 2006/07 and comprising 7% of all hospital admissions. (North West Public Health Observatory, 2010). (Pratima Murthy, 2010) Manickam, (1994) reported that in Kerala the approximate number of people being de addicted would be 255 in a year at one centre. Through all the centres, the number of people de addicted would be 308557. After the first month following an alcohol detoxification, relapse rates range between 19% for inpatients and 34% for outpatients and increase to about 46 and 48% respectively, after 6 months (Hayashida et al.,1989) in California In national alcohol survey to assess the risk of relapse in people with remitted alcohol dependence, they assessed 17772 adults of alcohol use and alcohol use disorder and followed for 3 years. At the baseline interview, 25% of subjects drank risky amounts, 38% drank lower-risk amounts, and 37% abstained. They concluded that relapse is common among people in remission from alcohol dependence and much more likely if they are drinking risky amounts. The results support the need to carefully monitor and support abstinence in people with remitted alcohol dependence. NIAA (2000) National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcohol reported approximately 90% of alcoholics will experience one or more relapses during the four years after treatment. By understanding what the common relapse triggers are, we will be better prepared to maintain sobriety and live the healthy life we want. Prasad (1996) in a treatment outcome study reported a relapse rate of 41% at 6 months follow up of alcohol dependence patients which was conducted in NIMHANS, Bangalore. Prakash et al. (1997), conducted a study on relapse in alcoholism, found negative emotional states as a major interpersonal trigger for relapse in Bangalore. Elis and McClure, (1992) conducted a meta analysis and found that about 6 of 10 patients with alcohol dependence will relapse in the 6 months following detoxification, as estimated by the median of 61% relapse rate obtained in several studies. This high rate of relapse in a relatively short period is a reason for searching for the factors that better predict treatment outcomes. During the observational visit, in Kasturba deaddiction centre, the researcher came across many alcohol dependence patients. There she identified the relapsed cases of alcohol dependence patients and she enquired with the relapsed patients about their return to drinking. They said many of the reasons like family problems, financial problems, participation in ritual functions, peer pressure and unable to control their thoughts of drinking. This triggers the researcher to reduce the relapse cases by identifying the risk factors earlier by using the relapse risk assessment tools during their follow up periods in deaddiction centre. So the researcher undertook this study as a stepping stone to identify or to explore the risk of relapse of alcohol dependence patients under detoxification treatment. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM A study to explore the risk of relapse in alcohol dependence patients who are under detoxification treatment in kasturba deaddiction centre, Coimbatore. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY To assess the risk of relapse in alcohol dependence patients under detoxification treatment To associate the risk of relapse in alcohol dependence patients who are under detoxification treatment with selected demographic and clinical variables. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION Relapse Refers falling back into a state of previous drinking after detoxification treatment which is measured by alcohol relapse risk scale. Alcohol dependence patient Alcohol dependence is a substance related disorder in which an individual is addicted to alcohol both physically and mentally, and continues to use alcohol despite significant areas of dysfunction. In this study it refers patients who are coming for follow up under detoxification treatment in kasturba deaddiction centre. Detoxification treatment Refers to a treatment in alcohol dependence patients for removal of existing toxins from the body which is accumulated because of alcoholism by using drugs like Librium, Diazepam, and Lorazepam. ASSUMPTION Relapse may be common and predictable in alcohol dependence patients under detoxification treatment. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK A conceptual framework is used in research to outline possible courses of action or to present a preferred approach to an idea or thought. Also its a theoretical structure of assumptions, principles, and rules that holds together the ideas comprising a broad concept. The  transtheoretical modelof behavior change assess an individuals readiness to act on a new healthier behavior, and provides strategies, or processes of change to guide the individual through the stages of change to Action and Maintenance. James O. Prochaska  of the  University of Rhode Island  and colleagues developed the transtheoretical model of behaviour change in 1977.It is based on analysis and use of different theories of psychotherapy, hence the name transtheoretical. STAGES OF CHANGE There are 5 stages in transtheoretical model. Change is a process involving progress through a series of stages. STAGE I: PRECONTEMPLATION (NOT READY) The process of change of alcohol drinking behaviour of an alcohol dependence individual starts with consciousness- raising about ill effects of alcohol by public medias like television, radio, and internet and also through newspaper, health magazines etc. STAGE II: CONTEMPLATION (GETTING READY) The alcohol dependence individual evaluates himself about his alcohol drinking behaviour and imagines how he will be when he stops the alcohol drinking behaviour. STAGE III: PREPARATION (READY) The individual realizes that the society is also not supporting the unhealthy behaviours like alcohol drinking. So he makes commitments to change this unhealthy behaviour by believing his ability to change. STAGE IV: ACTION The alcohol dependence individual makes discussion with his family and friends about changing the alcohol drinking behaviour.With family and friends support he approaches deaddiction centre to change his alcohol drinking behaviour. STAGE V: MAINTENANCE After getting inpatient detoxification, the alcohol dependence individuals are coming regularly for follow up visits to deaddiction centre and they are teaching about cue control measures,mainteneance of self efficacy and how to manage high risk situations. After the maintenance the alcohol dependence individual will enter either into: TERMINATION – the alcohol dependence individual possess zero temptation and craving and they are sure they will not return to their old unhealthy habit as a way of coping. RELAPSE-The alcohol dependence individual return from Action or Maintenance stage to his earlier unhealthy alcohol drinking behaviour because of stimulus induced vulnerability factors,emotionality problems,compulsivity for alcohol,lack of negative expectancy for alcohol and positive expectancy for alcohol. Intersectionality: Making a difference Intersectionality: Making a difference Intersectionality is defined as the relationships among multiple dimensions of identities and modalities of social relations and experiences of exclusion and subordination, including gender, class, race, ethnicity, nationality and sexuality (Collins 2000; McCall 2005; Davis 2008). It starts on the premise that everyone live multiple, layered identities. The theory attempts to expose the different types of discrimination and disadvantages that occur as a consequence of the combination of biological, social and cultural identities (AWID 2004). Intersectionality, as coined by Crenshaw (1989) attempts to address the fact that the experiences and struggles of women of colour fell between the cracks of both feminist and anti-racist discourse (AWID 2004; Davis 2008). Subsequently, this concept had extended to the understanding of women holding different disadvantaged social identities. Such intersections indicate that oppression cannot be reduced to one fundamental type, and that oppressions intersect together in producing injustice and inequality, instead of multiplying around the different social identities (Collins 2000; Conanhan 2009; Yuval-Davis 2007). An understanding of intersectionality suggested the attainment of political and social equality of disadvantaged women and improving the global democratic system (Harjunen 2008). This paper attempts to understand the intersection of social identities of Foreign Domestic Workers (FDWs) in Singapore. The number of women coming into Singapore to work as a FDW had increased over the years, and the increment of these outsiders had created many negative stigmas towards them, discursively created by the State and the society. By understanding the intersectionality these women face, it will establish an understanding of what shapes their experiences and opportunities as an FDW in a foreign land. Domain of study: Foreign Domestic Worker (FDW) in Singapore As the temporary home to 196,000 Foreign Domestic Workers (FDWs) and an estimate of employment of one live-in domestic worker in every five households (Daipi 2010), Singapore was and is an immigrant society. The FDW performs various household and maintenance chores for the families, including cooking, cleaning and care-giving to the young and elderly. Evidently, many FDWs now are the caregiver for babies and toddlers while their mothers were obliged to put in long working hours in the old male model and subordinate their family time for work demands. This may constitute more than mere care-giving, where many FDWs devote their love and emotional attachment to their young employers as a response to what the FDWs cannot provide for her own child (Hochschild 2004). With the introduction of the Foreign Maid Scheme in 1978  [1]  , labour mobilization of women was promoted by the government which prioritises economic development that brought about the significance of the Singapore femal e labour. FDWs have since been a visible feature of households in Singapore. This gradually led to the outlook of an ideal family in the Singapore context that comprises not only the kin but also the fictive kin. The ideal family in Singapore is one that consists of two working parents, a foreign maid who looks after their child(ren) and an older relative usually a grandmother to supervise the domestic worker (Teo 2011). According to Ochiai (2010), the model of Care Diamonds as proposed depicts patterns of care provision in each society in four different sectors, namely the State, the Market, the Family (and Relatives) and the Community. C:UsersshiminDesktopPicture1.png Figure . Care Diamonds in Singapore In the Singapore context, we see that there is a good proportion of care responsibility of familialism falling onto the Market, which reflects the bulk of welfare responsibility towards its members, in terms of both income distribution and care provision (Ochiai 2010) falling from the Family into the hands of the foreign domestic and care workers from the Market. This signifies the importance and prevalence of FDW in Singapore families, in both child care and elder care. It also shows the trend where families are now more prone in outsourcing their filial piety, which is also known as liberal familialism as the cost of purchasing care services is still borne by the family (Ochiai 2010). This is constituted as discussed from the increase participation of female labour into the workforce that displaces the natural caregiver role from the woman in the family to the woman from the market. Outsourcing the domestic chores in the house to the FDWs living in, they may become not merely an employee but close to a fictive kin through the constant interactions. This propels the assignment of kin relationships to non-family who embody the special characteristics of family, and are those who provide caregiving and emotional attachment like family and are given the labour of kin with its attendant affection, rights, and obligations (Gubruim and Buckholdt 1982; Tronto 1993; Karner 1998). FDW and Singaporeans  [2]   FDWs in Singapore are live-in domestic helpers (Ministry of Manpower 2013), and this establishes a close fictive kinship living under one roof. As a Singaporean who was raised by a kin (instead of a fictive kin) all my life, I decided to interview some employers of FDWs and learn about how they perceive these supposedly fictive kin. In my understanding, the acknowledgement of the status of a fictive kin has to be conscious between the FDW and the employer like a two-way traffic. This contradicted with the literature definition (Tronto 1993) which only addresses fictive kin as a person who provides kin-like care. Though most of these employers deem the help of FDWs to ease their load in housework, some of them do not recognise the FDWs as a fictive kin, but as a mere employee who I hire with money. For the employers who do not deem the FDWs as helpful, they made frequent complaints about the FDWs work including criticism such as stupid and clumsy towards the FDWs productivity in front of others in the presence of the FDW, lack of appreciation by saying please or thank you or blamed for mistakes that were not committed by the FDWs. This can adversely affect the psychological well-being of the FDW who are labelled as quiet indignities. Moreover, research shows that though there is a decrease in maid abuse cases in Singapore for the past 10 years, there still possesses a great number of cases where FDWs were stripped of basic human rights, including not being allowed to go out of the house, not having enough time to rest and having a heavy workload (Transient Workers Count Too 2011). This affects the physical well-being of the FDWs. The psychologically and physical well-being of the FDWs tend to be jeopardised in Singapore because of the inferior-superior mentality held by the employers towards their FDWs. A minute fraction of the employers acknowledged the FDWs as a great help in the house and a fictive kin, where these employers will buy new clothes for the FDWs, invites her to join in for dinners, and bring her along during family vacations. FDW and Intersectionality Figure . Intersectionality in FDWs in Singapore As a FDW, some of the axes of social identities that she holds include the intersection of her gender, nationality and social class. Each of these axes contributes to inequality on its own facet, and a complete picture will be portrayed when these facets intersect. As a social construct, gender emphasises the biological and psychological differences between man and women, which had constituted to the inherent power relationships. Nationality is also a social construct that emphasises on the basis of the arbitrary division and belongingness towards geographical spaces. Social class as a social identity determines the access to resources, which then shapes the power and position of the individual and the family in the society. Notably, these FDWs braved through obstacles to come to a foreign land alone to work in. The inherent power relations from different social identities differentiated the FDW and the employer, in an in-group-out-group context. This empowers employers to discriminate and oppress these FDWs which affect their opportunities and experiences as a FDW in Singapore, and it is tougher when she is helpless without the support of her community. Gender and Social Class In Singapore, FDWs had been portrayed as the lowest strata in the society. The society, constituted by the local policies  [3]  , associated an FDW to only the female gender. The legalization of the legislation that FDWs are strictly females also constitute to the internalization and naturalization of women occupying jobs in this sector. Comparatively, their female counterparts in Singapore were able to enjoy an overall increase in access to education, higher education, healthcare from the industrialization of the nation in the late 1960s, allowing Singapore to attain one of the highest standards of living amongst its neighbours in Southeast Asia. This improvement of status was not universal and not extended to the FDWs, who were mainly from Indonesia and Philippines (Humans Right Watch 2005; Arifin 2012). Despite both females being conformed in a patriarchal society in Singapore, the FDWs and the Singapore females were clearly distinct in their class status which is evident from the developments of the two groups of countries. This is despite that many FDWs were college graduates (International Labour Organisation 2007) but still segregated into the low-wage, low-prestige domestic work in Singapore. This instils a superior-inferior relationship between Singaporeans and FDWs. This hence led to negative stigmas from the Singapore women who were the employers, who acknowledged the FDWs as their assistance and also their inferior (Arifin 2012). Gender and Nationality As the policies  [4]  in Singapore discourage Singaporean women to participate in the domestic service sector, there is a synonym of women from the sending countries (predominantly Indonesia and Philippines) as maids in Singapore (Human Rights Watch 2005; Law and Nadeau 2009). As the provision of domestic service is seen as difficult, dirty and demeaning, these FDWs are portrayed as unskilled labour. In the patriarchal society, these women are not duly respected for their contributions, yet perceived as inferior as of their gender as a female and their nationality recognised as sending countries for FDWs both identities equating to the identity of maid. This created a discursive idea of FDWs as Other in the society. They are held with sharp contrast with other foreigners who come to Singapore with better skills, commonly addressed as foreign talent or expatriates. The call for talent capital from places such as United Kingdom, Australia and North America had allowed Singapore to be ranked as the top expat destination in the world (HSBC 2012). Evidently, the economic and social development between the two groups of origin countries differs greatly. Though there are more FDWs than foreign expatriates in the country (National Population and Talent Division 2013), there is a huge disparity between, in their income, respect received, and inherent stigma since these foreign expatriates are the people with the ability to hire these FDWs despite both being foreigners in the country. Discourses by the State portray FDWs as a sexual and social threat that breaks up Singaporean families and portrays expatriates as saviours of National Survival (Koh 2003; Human Rights Watch 2005). The demonization by the State further deepens the existing stereotypes towards FDWs. Intersection of social identities The intersection of gender, social class and nationality constructed the negative stigma of these FDWs in Singapore. It created a social hierarchy where FDWs were strained to the lowest strata without any mobility. Mobility is prohibited by the government through their policies that forbid FDWs to be covered under the Employment Act, or to be able to obtain citizenship from her length of stay and contribution to the economy (Human Rights Watch 2012; Ministry of Manpower 2013). In contrast, mobility is made available in countries like Canada where their live-in caregivers are permitted for permanent residence in Canada after two years of authorized live-in employment in Canadian households (Citizenship and Immigration Canada 2013). Reduced as a commodity in the global labour market, the FDWs brought about seemly traces of slavery in the modern world. Without adequate social and legal recognition for paid domestic service, the commercialised employment relationship with these fictive-kin FDWs can only be confined in an oppressive, family-like hierarchy. FDWs often engages in a power struggle (and often lose out) as they are not in any position, financially or psychologically, to negotiate their working conditions even if they deem it over exhaustive (Ueno 2008). With the improvement in social aspects in life including educational profile and healthcare for women, we see an increase of 10.3% in the women participating in the labour force in Singapore for the past 10 years (Ministry of Manpower 2011). With more women expected to participate in the economy in the future, there will be an increase in the care gap in families which signifies the greater need for FDWs. However, this may also means there will be more opportunities for oppressions to take place that will further undermine the physical and psychological well-being of FDWs. The next step: Recognition The struggle of FDWs in Singapore exceeds more than what the intersectionality of social identities as discussed they also have to struggle with their employers lack of appreciation of FDWs as a fictive kin. This can be problematic because a fictive kin relationship improves the quality of care and retrieves personal meanings for both the provider and the recipient (Lan 2003) and the oppression will be a hinder to the delivery of a kin-like care service. However, their social identities which are ascribed rather than achieved, confines them into a superior-inferior relationship with their female counterparts in Singapore. It reciprocates if an employer is more understanding to the FDW and evidently the appreciation will be mutual. Institutions such as the employer and the State can step in to improve the situation where both the sending and receiving countries can include FDWs into Employment Acts to protect them from physical and psychological harm, and to provide them with basic rights extended to every employee. As employers, one has to be reflexive and mindful that the FDW is also another human being with her own thoughts, feelings and behaviours, and hence behaving as a proper employer who treats her FDW well, even to the extent of a fictive kin, will be a good capital for the family members. By being aware of how they understanding their own experience and how their social identities intersect, it is empathetic to relate to how these women struggle through oppressions, all by herself. Appendix Foreign Maid Scheme in Singapore In 1978, Singapore introduced the Foreign Maid Scheme which permits the employment of women from selected Asian countries as live-in domestic workers (UNIFEM Singapore 2011). The scheme is introduced to encourage the participation of local women in the formal economy by introducing an extra helper to maintain the family. The high and steady rate of economic growth demanded massive number of labour in all sectors. The low population and low fertility rate of Singaporeans thus was not able to fulfil the demands of the labour market. Moreover, Singaporeans were not keen to work in the unskilled sectors including domestic work, as influenced by the rising socioeconomic conditions and educational level of Singaporeans. According to the Ministry of Manpower, FDWs will be employed under strict regulations, including their source country, age and educational attainment, and subsequent regulations inbound which assures their transience. These regulations were set forth as the political leaders assume that the presence of unskilled migrant workers and domestic workers will disrupt the Singapore society if left unregulated (Yeoh and Annadhurai 2008). Requirements for a Foreign Domestic Worker The following summarises the FDWs requirements in Singapore (Ministry of Manpower 2013. The list of requirements can be found in: http://www.mom.gov.sg/foreign-manpower/passes-visas/work-permit-fdw/before-you-apply/Pages/basic-requirements-of-a-foreign-domestic-worker.aspx: C:UsersshiminDesktopPicture2.png Intersectionality as a critique to Multiple Discrimination Mentioned in the EU Report on the Multiple Discrimination in EU Law, EU initially had a sole definition of multiple discrimination as an overarching notion, neutral notion for all instances of discrimination between multiple domains including race, age, language, ethnicity, culture, religion or disability or because they are indigenous people (UN 1995). The definition of intersectionality debated the EU legal discourse and reinforces the importance of encompassing the notion of gender as an important domain when it discusses the discrimination suffered primarily by the intersection of domains in many instances of discrimination suffered especially by women. It criticises that the mathematical notion that may be conjured by multiplying around the separate strands of discrimination which in reality intersect (Conanhan 2009; Yuval-Davis 2007). Precision Agriculture: Advantages and Disadvantages Precision Agriculture: Advantages and Disadvantages Precision agriculture Precision farming or precision agriculture is an agricultural concept relying on the existence of in-field variability. It requires the use of new technologies, such as global positioning (GPS), sensors, satellites or aerial images, and information management tools (GIS) to assess and understand variations. Collected information may be used to more precisely evaluate optimum sowing density, estimate fertilizers and other inputs needs, and to more accurately predict crop yields. It seeks to avoid applying inflexible practices to a crop, regardless of local soil/climate conditions, and may help to better assess local situations of disease or lodging. Satellites allow farmers to easily survey their land.[2] Global Positioning Systems (GPS) monitor can find the location of a field to within one meter. It can then present a series of GIS maps that demonstrate which fields are moist or dry, and where there is erosion of soil and other soil factors that stunt crop growth. The data can be used by the farmer to automatically regulate the machine application of fertilizer and pesticide[2]. In the American Midwest (US) it is associated not with sustainable agriculture but with mainstream farmers who are trying to maximize profits by spending money only in areas that need fertilizer. This practice allows the farmer to vary the rate of fertilizer across the field according to the need identified by GPS guided Grid Sampling. Fertilizer that would have been spread in areas that dont need it can be placed in areas that do, thereby optimizing its use. Precision farming may be used to improve a field or a farm management from several perspectives: agronomical perspective: adjustment of cultural practices to take into account the real needs of the crop (e.g., better fertilization management) technical perspective: better time management at the farm level (e.g. planning of agricultural activity) environmental perspective: reduction of agricultural impacts (better estimation of crop nitrogen needs implying limitation of nitrogen run-off) economical perspective: increase of the output and/or reduction of the input, increase of efficiency (e.g., lower cost of nitrogen fertilization practice) Other benefits for the farmer geostatistics integrated farming Integrated Pest Management nutrient budgeting nutrient management precision viticulture Agriculture Landsat program Geostatistics is a branch of statistics focusing on spatiotemporal datasets. Developed originally to predict probable distributions for mining operations, it is currently applied in diverse disciplines including petroleum geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, meteorology, oceanography, geochemistry, geometallurgy, geography, forestry, environmental control, landscape ecology, soil science, and agriculture (esp. in precision farming). Geostatistics is applied in varied branches of geography, particularly those involving the spread of disease (epidemiology), the practice of commerce and military planning (logistics), and the development of efficient spatial networks. Geostatistics are incorporated in tools such as geographic information systems (GIS) and digital elevation models. History This section requires expansion with: details. Background When any phenomena is measured, the observation methodology will dictate the accuracy of subsequent analysis; in geography, this issue is complicated by unique variables and spatial patterns such as geospatial topology. An interesting feature in geostatistics is that every location displays some form of spatial pattern, whether in the form of the environment, climate, pollution, urbanization or human health. This is not to state that all variables are spatially dependent, simply that variables are incapable of measurement separate from their surroundings, such that there can be no perfect control population. Whether the study is concerned with the nature of traffic patterns in an urban core, or with the analysis of weather patterns over the Pacific, there are always variables which escape measurement; this is determined directly by the scale and distribution of the data collection, or survey, and its methodology. Limitations in data collection make it impossible to make a direct meas ure of continuous spatial data without inferring probabilities, some of these probability functions are applied to create an interpolation surface predicting unmeasured variables at innumerable locations. Geostatistical terms Regionalized variable theory Covariance function Semi-variance Variogram Kriging Range (geostatistics) Sill (geostatistics) Nugget effect Criticism A major contributor to this section (or its creator) appears to have a conflict of interest with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedias content policies, particularly neutral point of view. Please discuss further on the talk page. ({{{November 2009}}}) Jan W Merks, a mineral sampling expert consultant from Canada, has strongly criticized[1] geostatistics since 1992. Referring to it as voodoo science[2] and scientific fraud, he claims that geostatistics is an invalid branch of statistics. Merks submits[2] that geostatistics ignores the variance of Agterbergs distance-weighted average point grade, ignores the concept of degrees of freedom of a data set when testing for spatial dependence by applying Fishers F-test to the variance of a set and the first variance term of the ordered set, abuses statistics by not using analysis of variance properly, replaced genuine variances of single distance-weighted average point grades with pseudo-variances of sets of distance-weighted average point grades, violating the one-to-one correspondence between variances and functions such as Agterbergs distance-weighted average point grade. Furthermore, Merks claims geostatistics inflates mineral reserve and resources such as in the case of Bre-Xs fraud. Merkss expertise and credibility are supported by several company executives, who regularly hire his consulting services[3]. Philip and Watson have also criticized geostatistics in the past [4]. There is a consensus that inappropriate use of geostatistics makes the method susceptible to erroneous reading of results[3][5]. Related software gslib is a set of fortran 77 routines (open source) implementing most of the classical geostatistics estimation and simulation algorithms sgems is a cross-platform (windows, unix), open-source software that implements most of the classical geostatistics algorithms (kriging, Gaussian and indicator simulation, etc) as well as new developments (multiple-points geostatistics). It also provides an interactive 3D visualization and offers the scripting capabilities of python. gstat is an open source computer code for multivariable geostatistical modelling, prediction and simulation. The gstat functionality is also available as an S extension, either as R package or S-Plus library. besides gstat, R has at least six other packages dedicated to geostatistics and other areas in spatial statistics. Notes 1. ^ A website that criticizes Matheronian geostatistics ^ a b See (Merks 1992) 3. ^ a b Sandra Rubin, Whistleblower raises doubts over ore bodies, Financial Post, September 30, 2002. ^ See (Philip and Watson 1986). 5. ^ Statistics for Spatial Data, Revised Edition, Noel A. C. Cressie, ISBN 978-0-471-00255-0. References 1. Armstrong, M and Champigny, N, 1988, A Study on Kriging Small Blocks, CIM Bulletin, Vol 82, No 923  Armstrong, M, 1992, Freedom of Speech? De Geeostatisticis, July, No 14 3. Champigny, N, 1992, Geostatistics: A tool that works, The Northern Miner, May 18 4. Clark I, 1979, Practical Geostatistics, Applied Science Publishers, London 5. David, M, 1977, Geostatistical Ore Reserve Estimation, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam 6. Hald, A, 1952, Statistical Theory with Engineering Applications, John Wiley Sons, New York 7. Chilà ¨s, J.P., Delfiner, P. 1999. Geostatistics: modelling spatial uncertainty, Wiley Series in Probability and Mathematical Statistics, 695 pp. 8. Deutsch, C.V., Journel, A.G, 1997. GSLIB: Geostatistical Software Library and Users Guide (Applied Geostatistics Series), Second Edition, Oxford University Press, 369 pp., http://www.gslib.com/ 9. Deutsch, C.V., 2002. Geostatistical Reservoir Modeling, Oxford University Press, 384 pp., http://www.statios.com/WinGslib/index.html 10. Isaaks, E.H., Srivastava R.M.: Applied Geostatistics. 1989. 11. ISO/DIS 11648-1 Statistical aspects of sampling from bulk materials-Part1: General principles 12. Journel, A G and Huijbregts, 1978, Mining Geostatistics, Academic Press 13:.Kitanidis, P.K.: Introduction to Geostatistics: Applications in Hydrogeology, Cambridge University Press. 1997. 14. Lantuà ©joul, C. 2002. Geostatistical simulation: models and algorithms. Springer, 256 pp. 15. Lipschutz, S, 1968, Theory and Problems of Probability, McCraw-Hill Book Company, New York. 16. Matheron, G. 1962. Traità © de gà ©ostatistique appliquà ©e. Tome 1, Editions Technip, Paris, 334 pp. 17. Matheron, G. 1989. Estimating and choosing, Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 18. McGrew, J. Chapman, Monroe, Charles B., 2000. An introduction to statistical problem solving in geography, second edition, McGraw-Hill, New York. 19. Merks, J W, 1992, Geostatistics or voodoo science, The Northern Miner, May 18 20. Merks, J W, Abuse of statistics, CIM Bulletin, January 1993, Vol 86, No 966 21. Myers, Donald E.; What Is Geostatistics? 22. Philip, G M and Watson, D F, 1986, Matheronian Geostatistics; Quo Vadis?, Mathematical Geology, Vol 18, No 1 23. Sharov, A: Quantitative Population Ecology, 1996, http://www.ento.vt.edu/~sharov/PopEcol/popecol.html 24. Shine, J.A., Wakefield, G.I.: A comparison of supervised imagery classification using analyst-chosen and geostatistically-chosen training sets, 1999, http://www.geovista.psu.edu/sites/geocomp99/Gc99/044/gc_044.htm 25. Strahler, A. H., and Strahler A., 2006, Introducing Physical Geography, 4th Ed., Wiley. 26. Volk, W, 1980, Applied Statistics for Engineers, Krieger Publishing Company, Huntington, New York. 27. Wackernagel, H. 2003. Multivariate geostatistics, Third edition, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 387 pp. 28. Yang, X. S., 2009, Introductory Mathematics for Earth Scientists, Dunedin Academic Press, 240pp. 29. Youden, W J, 1951, Statistical Methods for Chemists: John Wiley Sons, New York. External links Kriging link, contains explanations of variance in geostats Arizona university geostats page A resource on the internet about geostatistics and spatial statistics On-Line Library that chronicles Matherons journey from classical statistics to the new science of geostatistics Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostatistics Categories: Geostatistics Hidden categories: Statistics articles needing expert attention | Articles needing expert attention from August 2009 | All articles needing expert attention | Articles lacking in-text citations from January 2009 | All articles lacking in-text citations | Articles to be expanded from January 2010 | All articles to be expanded | Wikipedia expand-section box with explanation text | Articles to be expanded from August 2008 | Wikipedia articles with sections containing possible conflicts of interest Integrated farming (or integrated agriculture) is a commonly and broadly used word to explain a more integrated approach to farming as compared to existing monoculture approaches. It refers to agricultural systems that integrate livestock and crop production and may sometimes be known as Integrated Biosystems. While not often considered as part of the permaculture movement Integrated Farming is a similar whole systems approach to agriculture[1]. There have been efforts to link the two together such as at the 2007 International Permaculture Conference in Brazil[2]. Agro-ecology (which was developed at University of California Santa Cruz) and Bio-dynamic farming also describe similar integrated approaches. Examples include: pig tractor systems where the animals are confined in crop fields well prior to planting and plow the field by digging for roots poultry used in orchards or vineyards after harvest to clear rotten fruit and weeds while fertilizing the soil cattle or other livestock allowed to graze cover crops between crops on farms that contain both cropland and pasture (or where transhumance is employed) Water based agricultural systems that provide way for effective and efficient recycling of farm nutrients producing fuel, fertilizer and a compost tea/mineralized irrigation water in the process. In 1993 FARRE (Forum de lAgriculture Raisonnà ©e Respecteuse lEnvironnement) developed agricultural techniques France as part of an attempt to reconcile agricultural methods with the principles of sustainable development. FARRE, promotes an integrated and/or multi-sector approach to food production that includes profitability, safety, animal welfare, social responsibility and environmental care. Zero Emissions Research and Initiatives (formed in 1994 by the eco-entrepreneur [1]) developed a similar approach to FARRE seeking to promote agricultural and industrial production models that sought to incorporate natures wisdom into the process. ZERI helped support an effort by an environmental engineer from Mauritius named George Chan. Chan working with a network of poly-culture farming pioneers began refining Integrated Farming practices that had already been developed in south-east Asia in the 60,70s and 80s, building on the ancient Night soil farming practice. In China, programs embracing this form of integrated farming have been successful in demonstrating how an intensive growing systems can use organic and sustainable farming practices, while providing a high agriculture yield. Taking what he learned from the Chinese during his time there, Chan worked at the UN University in the 1990s and forwarded an approach to Integrated Farming which was termed Integrated Biomass Systems working specifically under the UNU/ZERI ZERI Bag Program. Chan during his work with UNU sought to make the case that Integrated Biomass Systems were well suited to help small island nations and low lying tropical regions become more self-reliant and prosperous in the production of food[3]. Working with ZERI, he developed several prototypes for this approach around the world including sites in Namibia and Fiji. The scientifically verified results in a UNDP sponsored congress in 1997 resulted in the adoption of the IBS by the State Government of Paranà ¡, Brazil where dozens of piggeries have applied the system generating food, energy while improving health and environmental conditions. Montfort Boys Town in Fiji was one of the first Integrated Biomass Systems developed outside of Southeast Asia with the support of UNU, UNDP and other international agencies. The project which is still operational continues to be a model of how farm operations can provide multiple benefits to stakeholders both local and international. ZERI Bag had a significant African component that included assisting Father Godfrey Nzamujo in the development of the Songhai Farm Integrated Farming project in Benin[4] . Most recently The Heifer Foundation a major international NGO based in the USA has taken a lead role in deploying Integrated Farming so that it can be replicated globally as an effective approach to sustainable farming in non-affluent regions such as Vietnam[5]. References 1. ^ Steve Divers work linking Integrated Farming with Permaculture: http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/perma.html 2. ^ Report includes reference to presentation on Integrated Farming by permaculture and ZERI practitioner Eric Fedus and Alexandre Takamatsu 3. ^ Small Islands and ZERI: A unique case for the Application of ZERI: A Paper presented by George Chan of the United Nations University at an International Symposium on Small Islands and Sustainable Development organized by the United Nations University and the National Land Agency of Japan: http://www.gdrc.org/oceans/chan.html 4. ^ ZERI Bag was designed to focus on small scale deployment of appropriate technologies with a focus on the Integrated Biomass System approach developed by ZERI and George Chan http://www.zeri.unam.na/africa.htm 5. ^ http://www.heifer.org/site/c.edJRKQNiFiG/b.2877337/ External links FARRE homepage Integrated farming of fish, crop and livestock Design an construction of an intergated fish farm Integrated Farming System by George Chan wiki on integrated farming Songhai Centre in Benin IPM: In agriculture, integrated pest management (IPM) is a pest control strategy that uses a variety of complementary strategies including: mechanical devices, physical devices, genetic, biological, cultural management, and chemical management. These methods are done in three stages: prevention, observation, and intervention. It is an ecological approach with a main goal of significantly reducing or eliminating the use of pesticides while at the same time managing pest populations at an acceptable level.[1] For their leadership in developing and spreading IPM worldwide, Dr. Perry Adkisson and Dr. Ray F. Smith received the 1997 World Food Prize. History of IPM Shortly after World War II, when synthetic insecticides became widely available, entomologists in California developed the concept of supervised insect control. Around the same time, entomologists in cotton-belt states such as Arkansas were advocating a similar approach. Under this scheme, insect control was supervised by qualified entomologists, and insecticide applications were based on conclusions reached from periodic monitoring of pest and natural-enemy populations. This was viewed as an alternative to calendar-based insecticide programs. Supervised control was based on a sound knowledge of the ecology and analysis of projected trends in pest and natural-enemy populations. Supervised control formed much of the conceptual basis for the integrated control that University of California entomologists articulated in the 1950s. Integrated control sought to identify the best mix of chemical and biological controls for a given insect pest. Chemical insecticides were to be used in manner least disruptive to biological control. The term integrated was thus synonymous with compatible. Chemical controls were to be applied only after regular monitoring indicated that a pest population had reached a level (the economic threshold) that required treatment to prevent the population from reaching a level (the economic injury level) at which economic losses would exceed the cost of the artificial control measures. IPM extended the concept of integrated control to all classes of pests and was expanded to include tactics other than just chemical and biological controls. Artificial controls such as pesticides were to be applied as in integrated control, but these now had to be compatible with control tactics for all classes of pests. Other tactics, such as host-plant resistance and cultural manipulations, became part of the IPM arsenal. IPM added the multidisciplinary element, involving entomologists, plant pathologists, nematologists, and weed scientists. In the United States, IPM was formulated into national policy in February 1972 when President Nixon directed federal agencies to take steps to advance the concept and application of IPM in all relevant sectors. In 1979, President Carter established an interagency IPM Coordinating Committee to ensure development and implementation of IPM practices. (references: The History of IPM, BioControl Reference Center. [1] How IPM works An IPM regime can be quite simple or sophisticated. Historically, the main focus of IPM programs was on agricultural insect pests.[2] Although originally developed for agricultural pest management, IPM programs are now developed to encompass diseases, weeds, and other pests that interfere with the management objectives of sites such as residential and commercial structures, lawn and turf areas, and home and community gardens. An IPM system is designed around six basic components: The US Environmental Protection Agency has a useful set of IPM principles. [2] 1. Acceptable pest levels: The emphasis is on control, not eradication. IPM holds that wiping out an entire pest population is often impossible, and the attempt can be more costly, environmentally unsafe, and frequently unachievable. IPM programs first work to establish acceptable pest levels, called action thresholds, and apply controls if those thresholds are crossed. These thresholds are pest and site specific, meaning that it may be acceptable at one site to have a weed such as white clover, but at another site it may not be acceptable. This stops the pest gaining resistance to chemicals produced by the plant or applied to the crops. If many of the pests are killed then any that have resistance to the chemical will rapidly reproduce forming a resistant population. By not killing all the pests there are some un-resistant pests left that will dilute any resistant genes that appear. 2. Preventive cultural practices: Selecting varieties best for local growing conditions, and maintaining healthy crops, is the first line of defense, together with plant quarantine and cultural techniques such as crop sanitation (e.g. removal of diseased plants to prevent spread of infection). 3. Monitoring: Regular observation is the cornerstone of IPM. Observation is broken into two steps, first; inspection and second; identification.[3] Visual inspection, insect and spore traps, and other measurement methods and monitoring tools are used to monitor pest levels. Accurate pest identification is critical to a successful IPM program. Record-keeping is essential, as is a thorough knowledge of the behavior and reproductive cycles of target pests. Since insects are cold-blooded, their physical development is dependent on the temperature of their environment. Many insects have had their development cycles modeled in terms of degree days. Monitor the degree days of an environment to determine when is the optimal time for a specific insects outbreak. 4. Mechanical controls: Should a pest reach an unacceptable level, mechanical methods are the first options to consider. They include simple hand-picking, erecting insect barriers, using traps, vacuuming, and tillage to disrupt breeding. 5. Biological controls: Natural biological processes and materials can provide control, with minimal environmental impact, and often at low cost. The main focus here is on promoting beneficial insects that eat target pests. Biological insecticides, derived from naturally occurring microorganisms (e.g.: Bt, entomopathogenic fungi and entomopathogenic nematodes), also fit in this category. 6. Chemical controls: Synthetic pesticides are generally only used as required and often only at specific times in a pests life cycle. Many of the newer pesticide groups are derived from plants or naturally occurring substances (e.g.: nicotine, pyrethrum and insect juvenile hormone analogues), and further biology-based or ecological techniques are under evaluation. IPM is applicable to all types of agriculture and sites such as residential and commercial structures, lawn and turf areas, and home and community gardens. Reliance on knowledge, experience, observation, and integration of multiple techniques makes IPM a perfect fit for organic farming (the synthetic chemical option is simply not considered). For large-scale, chemical-based farms, IPM can reduce human and environmental exposure to hazardous chemicals, and potentially lower overall costs of pesticide application material and labor. 1. Proper identification of pest What is it? Cases of mistaken identity may result in ineffective actions. If plant damage due to over-watering are mistaken for a fungal infection, a spray may be used needlessly and the plant still dies. 2. Learn pest and host life cycle and biology. At the time you see a pest, it may be too late to do much about it except maybe spray with a pesticide. Often, there is another stage of the life cycle that is susceptible to preventative actions. For example, weeds reproducing from last years seed can be prevented with mulches. Also, learning what a pest needs to survive allows you to remove these. 3. Monitor or sample environment for pest population How many are here? Preventative actions must be taken at the correct time if they are to be effective. For this reason, once you have correctly identified the pest, you begin monitoring BEFORE it becomes a problem. For example, in school cafeterias where roaches may be expected to appear, sticky traps are set out before school starts. Traps are checked at regular intervals so you can see them right away and do something before they get out of hand. Some of the things you might want to monitor about pest populations include: Is the pest present/absent? What is the distribution all over or only in certain spots? Is the pest population increasing or decreasing? 4. Establish action threshold (economic, health or aesthetic) How many are too many? In some cases, a certain number of pests can be tolerated. Soybeans are quite tolerant of defoliation, so if you have only a few caterpillars in the field and their population is not increasing dramatically, there is no need to do anything. Conversely, there is a point at which you MUST do something. For the farmer, that point is the one at which the cost of damage by the pest is MORE than the cost of control. This is an economic threshold. Tolerance of pests varies also by whether or not they are a health hazard (low tolerance) or merely a cosmetic damage (high tolerance in a non-commercial situation). Personal tolerances also vary many people dislike any insect; some people cannot tolerate dandelions in their yards. Different sites may also have varying requirements based on specific areas. White clover may be perfectly acceptable on the sides of a tee box on a golf course, but unacceptable in th e fairway where it could cause confusion in the field of play.[4] 5. Choose an appropriate combination of management tactics For any pest situation, there will be several options to consider. Options include, mechanical or physical control, cultural controls, biological controls and chemical controls. Mechanical or physical controls include picking pests off plants, or using netting or other material to exclude pests such as birds from grapes or rodents from structures. Cultural controls include keeping an area free of conducive conditions by removing or storing waste properly, removing diseased areas of plants properly. Biological controls can be support either through conservation of natural predators or augmentation of natural predators[5]. Augmentative control includes the introduction of naturally occurring predators at either an inundative or inoculative level[6]. An inundative release would be one that seeks to inundate a site with a pests predator to impact the pest population[7][8]. An inoculative release would be a smaller number of pest predators to supplement the natural population and provide ongoing control.[9] Chemical controls would include horticultural oils or the application of pesticides such as insecticides and herbicides. A Green Pest Management IPM program would use pesticides derived from plants, such as botanicals, or other naturally occurring materials. 6. Evaluate results How did it work? Evaluation is often one of the most important steps.[10] This is the process to review an IPM program and the results it generated. Asking the following questions is useful: Did your actions have the desired effect? Was the pest prevented or managed to your satisfaction? Was the method itself satisfactory? Were there any unintended side effects? What will you do in the future for this pest situation? Understanding the effectiveness of the IPM program allows the site manager to make modifications to the IPM plan prior to pests reaching the action threshold and requiring action again. Notes 1. ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency, Pesticides and Food: What Integrated Pest Management Means. 2. ^ http://www.umass.edu/umext/ipm/publications/guidelines/index.html. 3. ^ Bennett, Et Al., Trumans Scientific Guide to Pest Management Operations, 6th edition, page 10, Purdue University/Questex Press, 2005. 4. ^ Purdue University Turf Pest Management Correspondence Course, Introduction, 2006 5. ^ http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/IPM/biocontrol/ 6. ^ http://www.hort.uconn.edu/ipm/veg/htms/ecbtrich.htm 7. ^ http://pinellas.ifas.ufl.edu/green_pros/ipm_basics.shtml 8. ^ http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/IPM/biocontrol/Inundative_release.htm 9. ^ http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/IPM/biocontrol/Inoculative_release_.htm 10. ^ Bennett, Et Al., Trumans Scientific Guide to Pest Management Operations, 6th edition, page 12, Purdue University/Questex Press, 2005. References * Pests of Landscape Trees and Shrubs: An Integrated Pest Management Guide. Steve H. Dreistadt, Mary Louise Flint, et al., ANR Publications, University of California, Oakland, California, 1994. 328pp, paper, photos, reference tables, diagrams. * Bennett, Gary W., Ph.d., Owens, John M., Ph.d., Corrigan, Robert M, Ph.d. Trumans Scientific Guide to Pest Management Operations, 6th Edition, pages 10, 11, 12, Purdue University, Questex, 2005. * Jahn, GC, PG Cox., E Rubia-Sanchez, and M Cohen 2001. The quest for connections: developing a research agenda for integrated pest and nutrient management. pp. 413-430, In S. Peng and B. Hardy [eds.] â€Å"Rice Research for Food Security and Poverty Alleviation.† Proceeding the International Rice Research Conference, 31 March 3 April 2000, Los Baà ±os, Philippines. Los Baà ±os (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. 692 p. * Jahn, GC, B. Khiev, C Pol, N. Chhorn and V Preap 2001. Sustainable pest management for rice in Cambodia. In P. Cox and R Chhay [eds.] â€Å"The Impact of Agricultural Research for Development in Southeast Asia† Proceedings of an International Conference held at the Cambodian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 24-26 Oct. 2000, Phnom Penh (Cambodia): CARDI. * Jahn, GC, JA Litsinger, Y Chen and A Barrion. 2007. Integrated Pest Management of Rice: Ecological Concepts. In Ecologically Based Integrated Pest Management (eds. O. Koul and G.W. Cuperus). CAB International Pp. 315-366. * Kogan, M 1998. INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT:Historical Perspectives and Contemporary Developments, Annual Review of Entomology Vol. 43: 243-270 (Volume publication date January 1998) (doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.43.1.243) * Nonveiller, Guido 1984. Catalogue commentà © et illustrà © des insectes du Cameroun dintà ©rà ªt agricole: (apparitions, rà ©partition, importance) / University of Belgrade/Institut pour la protection des plantes * US Environmental Protection Ag

The story of Ben Carson :: essays research papers

The Decisions of Ben Carson   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout his life Ben Carson faced many trials and tribulations. All of which forced him to make life altering decisions. Going from a â€Å"disturbed† child and adolescent to an outstanding surgeon society would think Dr. Carson made the right choices, but along the way Ben wasn’t so sure.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One of the important decisions Ben was faced with was in the tenth grade. He had to decide weather or not he wanted to continue on his downward spiral with school and friends or if he wanted to get his act together and become high in rank in his school’s ROTC program. After seeing his brother in his ROTC uniform Ben was certain he wanted to follow in Curtis’ footsteps. He knew he would have to work tremendously hard if he ever wanted to be named colonel as a student. Carson decided to put his best foot forward and forgot about being in the â€Å"it† crowd with the â€Å"right† clothes and focused on his ROTC goal. Ben was honored when Sgt. Bandy put him in charge of the most rambunctious class. His strategy for whipping the class into shape was getting to know them individually and then â€Å"structured the exercises accordingly (65).† Sgt Bandy was pleased to see that Ben turned the worst class into the best class of the unit in a matter of weeks. Ben was then promoted to second lieutenant. By the time he graduated Ben not only reached his goal and was ranked colonel, but he had been offered a full scholarship to West Point. A whole new decision in its own, Ben turned the scholarship down to pursue his dreams of being a doctor.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another decision Ben made came after his first year of college at Yale. He was put in charge of a highway crew that picked up trash along highways in Detroit. The crews were made up of mostly inter-city kids. Instead of allowing his crew to collect only 12 bags of trash a day like the other supervisors, Ben made sure his crew turned in at least 150 bags at the end of each day. He taught the young men in his group the idea of hard work and taking pride for the work that they do. â€Å"The principle goes like this: It’s not what you know but the kind of job you do that makes the difference (81).† By teaching these kids not to slack off even though it may have been hot outside or they may have been too tired, he more than likely changed their work ethic for the rest of their lives.

To What Extent Can Bosola Be Considered a Tragic Hero?

To what extent can Bosola be considered a tragic hero? â€Å"Let worthy minds ne’er stagger in distrust/ to suffer death or shame for what is just. / Mine is another voyage. † Thus the dying Bosola concludes his last speech and, in doing so, ends the life of a character whose very nature is at odds with the others’ – and with himself. For Bosola is a paradox: as a malcontent, he delivers line after line of poisonous verse; insults old women; sneers at the Cardinal and Ferdinand, whom he sees (justifiably so) as having manipulated him; and maintains an almost universal apathy towards the rest of the characters – in the words of Brian Gibbons, a â€Å"stance of disgust inclining towards the misanthropic†[1] – and yet, for all his shortcomings, Bosola begins to exhibit a change of heart that we would not otherwise have expected from such an odious character. He begins to redeem himself, both by revealing a more sympathetic side to his persona and by ultimately sacrificing himself in order to kill Ferdinand. This inherent duality within Bosola – a duality which proves to be both his downfall and his salvation – is closely linked with the classical notion of the tragic hero: that he should neither be wholly good, nor wholly evil, and that â€Å"there remains a mean between these two extremes† which the tragic hero is meant to occupy[2]. While the Duchess is marked from the outset as the protagonist – and, arguably, a tragic heroine in her own right – it is left to Bosola, when all the others have been killed, to avenge her. Moreover, Bosola’s final act – his killing of the chief antagonist, Ferdinand – serves partly to reconcile him with the audience; by ending his life with a ‘good’ deed, Bosola redeems himself in our eyes and we finish the play with a renewed respect – and pity – for him. By no means, however, does he necessarily satisfy all the classical criteria for the role of tragic hero – he is of a relatively low social standing; the classical tragic hero was typically a man of high social ranking whose fatal flaw, or ‘hamartia’, resulted in an inevitable fall from grace and power. Bosola’s role as a malcontent – a notion which implies a restless, disillusioned spirit – is essential to the part he has to play as an antagonist to the Duchess and Antonio. As soon as he enters in Act I, scene , this bitterness is instantly revealed in his address to the Cardinal – â€Å"I do haunt you still†, â€Å"I have done you better than to be slighted thus†. We are shown a man who, while perfectly willing to carry out orders, is unwilling to be snubbed. This reveals an independence of character in Bosola, which, unlike the character of Iago in Othello (whose sadism and cruelty place him firmly as the lead antagonis t of the play) lends itself to a strength of spirit that will ultimately lead him to rebel against his employers and avenge the Duchess. This disparity in what he allows Ferdinand to instruct him to do and what he eventually does could be taken to be a tragic flaw – one which leads to his downfall. This essential dichotomy in Bosola’s character – that his cynical nature would have the Duchess fail, but his unexpressed empathy would have her survive[3] – leads us, unavoidably, to pity him; his contempt leads to the Duchess’ death, but his compassion leads to the death of her enemies. The notion of the tragic hero as a victor – and a victim – is also intrinsically linked with the concept of the tragic hero. Were we to argue that Bosola’s role as a tragic hero is a convincing one, necessity predicates that he would need to have suffered either immense physical or mental strain and have overcome it – to the extent that humanity’s innate strength of will and character is reaffirmed – or that by sacrificing himself, Bosola somehow achieves salvation for others in the play: as Raymond Williams puts it, â€Å"others are made whole while he is broken†[4]. While it is a moot point as to whether he undergoes any suffering, we may safely say that his death is not entirely a sacrifice, and thus his role as victim is almost entirely negligible: his motives for killing Ferdinand are not limited to the avenging of the Duchess. As we have seen before, Bosola despises the two brothers – â€Å"he and his brother are like plum trees that grow crooked over standing pools† – and so does not kill them entirely out of some affection for the Duchess; like the opportunist he is, he leaps at the chance to wound Ferdinand (â€Å"now my revenge is perfect: sink, thou main cause of my undoing! ). Thus, Bosola’s apparently selfless act has a variety of incentives, ranging from the desire to take revenge on the Duchess’ murderers (for, although it is he who actually kills her, it is Ferdinand who instructs him to do so) to the final chance to dispatch of his masters. Although this scene is typically Jacobean in its gorine ss – three characters die in quick succession – the dramatic impact of Bosola’s death upon the audience is immense. Whether he dies a tragic hero’s death is questionable, but the scene shocks us enough: Webster’s orchestration of the climactic fight allows a form of catharsis to take place, so that the audience is left with a sense of relief; the antagonists have been punished and justice has been served. It is Bosola’s questionable moral standards, however, that ultimately prohibit him from being designated a tragic hero. Drawing from other plays, it is possible to argue that there are characters whose integrity is called into question – King Lear in his selfishness and Hamlet in his rejection of Ophelia – and yet these qualities are always balanced (if not outweighed) by their respective characters’ greatness of character. Bosola’s contempt for an ethical approach, his perverse obedience to the two brothers and utter aloofness in the face of human suffering all mark him out as a character whose flaws outweigh his virtues. At his death, therefore, we are left not only with a pity for a character whose downfall is tragically inevitable, but also with a sense of satisfaction – that the antagonists received appropriate retribution, and that Bosola’s last act was not one of altruism, but of personal vendetta. The notion of the tragic hero, both in the classical and the contemporary school is one which is constantly being questioned and redefined: our concept of the tragic hero today is vastly different to that of the Greek and, to an extent, that of the Elizabethan and Jacobean playwrights. The characters of Oedipus, Hamlet and Willy Loman (in Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman) are all undoubtedly tragic heroes in their own right, but the criteria which make them tragic heroes are invariably different. To that end, therefore, our consideration of Bosola will never be a comprehensive one. One thing, however, is obvious: he is not a tragic hero in the traditional sense of the word. Although there are some tragic elements to his portrayal, there are others which run so contrary to any concept of the tragic hero that it is impossible for us to claim him worthy of the title. We may safely say, however, that while he may not wholly be a tragic hero, he is neither wholly an antagonist – he is only a misguided everyman who proves to us that even ordinary people can overcome their subjugators and triumph in the end. ———————– [1] Brian Gibbons, An Introduction to John Webster’s The Duchess of Malfi (1964) [2] Aristotle, Poetics XIII (350 B. C. E. ) [3] Zena Goldberg, Between worlds: a study of the plays of John Webster (1987) [4] Raymond Williams, Modern Tragedy (2006)

Emission Spectrum Definition in Science

In general, an emission spectrum describes the wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum emitted by an energetic object. What this object is depends on the scientific discipline. In chemistry, an emission spectrum refers to the range of wavelengths emitted by an atom or compound stimulated by either heat or electric current. An emission spectrum is unique to each element. The emission spectrum of burning fuel or other molecules may also be used to example its composition. In astronomy, the emission spectrum generally refers to the spectrum of a star, nebula, or another body. How an Emission Spectrum Is Produced When an atom or molecule absorbs energy, electrons are bumped into a higher energy state. When the electron drops to a lower energy state, a photon is released equal to the energy between the two states. There are multiple energy states available to an electron, so there are many possible transitions, leading to the numerous wavelengths that comprise the emission spectrum. Because each element has a unique emission spectrum, the spectrum obtained from any hot or energetic body may be used to analyze its composition.